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Abstract |
Palm
Carotenoids Profile as a Quality Control Tool for Palm Carotene Producers
: Introducing an Improvised Method by HPLC-Photodiode Array and a C30 Column
This study establishes a more detailed
HPLC profile of palm carotenoids than that possible from reverse phase
C18 column analysis that detects 11 types of carotenes but
can only partially resolve the cis/trans geometrical isomers. Carotenoid
extracts of palm pressed fibre, crude palm oil (CPO) and commercial
red palm olein (CRPo) were analysed by HPLC-photodiode array detection
using a reverse phase C30 column and the palm carotenoids elution sequence
was found to be lutein, neurosporene (trans), neurosporene (cis), a-zeacarotene
(cis), a-zeacarotene (trans), a-zeacarotene
(cis), phytoene, phytofluene, ß-zeacarotene, 13 and 13’
cis a-carotene, 13 cis ß-carotene, trans a-carotene,
9 cis a-carotene, trans ß-carotene,
d-carotene a (cis), d-carotene
b (cis), d-carotene (trans), g-carotene
a (cis), g-carotene (trans), g-carotene
b (cis), lycopene (cis) and lycopene (trans). However, x-carotene
was not detected using this new method The run time for complete analysis
was about 200 min.
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Oil
Palm Empty Fruit Bunch-Polypropylene Composites : The Effect Maleated
Polypropylene on the Mechanical Properties
The production of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) fibre–polypropylene (PP) composites with treated and
non-treated maleated polypropylene (MAPP) was studied. Commercial MAPP (Epolene 43) and MAPP
samples synthesized at the laboratory were used to determine MAPP’s effectiveness as a coupling agent for
EFB fibre-composites. Several analyses on MAPP-treated composites were carried out including FTIR spectra,
acid number and Gd tests to determine the action of the anhydride. The flexural and impact properties of the
treated composite samples produced in the laboratory using both Epolene 43 and MAPP samples produced at
laboratory were significantly better than those of the untreated composites.
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Thermal
Properties of Oil Palm Fibre, Cellulose and its Derivatives
Oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB)
are abundantly produced in palm oil mills from processing the fresh
fruit bunches. Holocellulose, a composite of hemicelluloses and cellulose,
was extracted from EFB using acidified sodium chlorite method. The a-cellulose
was then separated from the holocellulose using 17.5% sodium hydroxide
solution. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na CMC) was synthesized from
the a-cellulose by etherification with chloroacetic
acid. The thermal properties of the EFB fibre, holocellulose, cellulose
and Na CMC were studied with a thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) in the
temperature range 50°C-850°C with nitrogen as purge gas until 700°C
and then oxygen for combustion. The cellulose was more resistant to
heat than the holocellulose and EFB fibre. The maximum rate of decomposition,
or carbonization, for the cellulose occurred at 377.3°C whereas the
temperatures for the holocellulose and EFB fibre were 344.4°C and 332.4°C,
respectively. The thermogram profiles of the three materials differed
from that of Na CMC in the later stage of the heating up to 700°C. The
maximum rate of degradation for Na CMC occurred at 329.9°C. On introduction
of oxygen at 700°C, combustion occurred and the approximate carbon contents
of the materials may be inferred from their final loss in weight.
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Autocatalytic
Hydrolysis and Autoxidation of Crude Palm Oil Under Various Constant
Humidities
The kinetics of autocatalytic hydrolysis of crude palm oil was studied at moisture below solubility using the
isopiestic method, in which the oil was exposed to a volume of sulphuric acid at a certain concentration in a
closed system and stored at 55oC. Different humidities were created by using different concentrations of
sulphuric acid, thereby effecting different activities of water in the oil. The reaction rate constants of crude
palm oil with different initial free fatty acid contents and initial moisture contents stored under the constant
humidities created were determined and studied. The oxidation of the oil samples under these different constant
humidities was also studied.
Autocatalytic hydrolysis of crude palm oil, or similar glyceridic oil, of a low free fatty acid content, and
under constant water activity, follows a zero-order reaction. The rate of reaction is a function of the initial free
fatty acid content. The reaction rate constant is a direct function of the initial free fatty acid content and water
activity or moisture content. Water activity of >0.50 is desirable for a lower rate of autoxidation of the oil in
storage.
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Safety
Assessment of Palm kernel Oil, Palm Kernel Stearin and Palm Kernel Olein
in Marine Environment
The acute toxicity of water accommodated fraction (WAF) of crude palm kernel oil (CPKO), crude palm
kernel stearin (CPKST) and crude palm kernel olein (CPKOL) to Acartia tonsa (a marine copepod) and
Skeletonema costatum (a chain forming marine algae) was determined at three loading rates: 10, 100 and
1000 mg litre-1. WAF methodology was used for the toxicity tests as these palm products are poorly watersoluble.
Measurement of the total carbon (TC) of the test medium before the start of the tests confirmed that
there were low levels of solubilized material in the WAFs. The mean concentrations of TC in 1000 mg litre-1
WAFs prepared from palm kernel oil, palm kernel stearin and palm kernel olein were 4.5, 1.0 and 5.2 mg litre-1,
respectively. All the palm products tested were not toxic to A. tonsa. Palm kernel oil and palm kernel olein
were harmless to S. costatum at a loading rate of 10 mg litre-1. They were slightly toxic at 100 mg litre-1 and
toxic at 1000 mg litre-1. Palm kernel stearin was harmless to S. costatum at a loading rate of 100 mg litre-1
and only slightly toxic at 1000 mg litre-1.
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Freeze-Drying
of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Leaf and its Effect on the Quality of
Extractable DNA
The use of molecular genetic markers in plant breeding and genetic resource management in oil palm requires
the analysis of large numbers of samples and the availability of rapid and efficient DNA extraction methods.
This often requires leaf samples to be stored in an ultra low temperature freezer for future use. This takes up
valuable freezer space. Thus, freeze-drying is proposed as an alternative. The freeze-dried tissue can be ground
into dry powder for efficient storage in freezers. This paper describes a method to freeze-dry oil palm leaf and
compares the quality of genomic DNA extracted from non-freeze-dried and freeze-dried leaves. The effects of
storage temperature (–20oC and 4oC) and duration (up to 18 months) on the DNA stability in the freeze-dried
leaf were also evaluated. The freeze-dried leaf yielded high molecular weight DNA of sufficient purity and
quality for molecular biology applications. The study demonstrated that freeze-dried oil palm leaves can be
stored at -20oC and 4oC for at least 18 months with no DNA degradation. DNA prepared from the freeze-dried
leaves was also acceptable for both RFLP and SSR analyses. Freeze-drying oil palm leaf provides an economical
solution to long-term storage and handling because of the reduced weight and space requirement. In addition,
up to four times as many samples can be processed for DNA isolation per day per person using freeze-dried
powder of oil palm leaves, compared to using fresh tissue or tissue frozen in liquid nitrogen.
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Scaled-Up
Production and Optimization Study on the Esterification of Palm-Based
Fatty Acid and Triethanolamine
Esterquats or cationic surfactants are increasingly used because of their fabric softening effect and excellent
biodegradability. Esterquats production is a two-stage process involving esterification and quaternization.
Esteramines, an intermediate for the production of esterquats is produced by esterifying of palm-based fatty
acid and triethanolamine in the presence of hypophosphorous acid of 50% purity. The esterification variables,
namely, pressure, temperature and mixing intensity were investigated for their effect on the rate of esterification
and colour of esteramines produced. Vacuum and temperature had a profound impact on the esterification
process. A vacuum of at least 40 mbar was required for the formation of a light-colour esteramines. The
reaction time was shortened from 9 hr to approximately 4 hr when the reactor temperature was increased
from 160oC to 180oC. Improved colour of the esteramine was also observed with the higher temperature effect.
However, mixing intensity only had minimal effect on both the esterification rate and colour of the esteramines.
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